
Connecting dots between public goods funding x impact | prev. Grants Steward @cartesiproject | @Kernel0x KB8 Fellow.
Joined May 2017
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hellenstans.eth retweeted
We built what we thought the world needed, not what it wanted.
That’s why we failed.
hellenstans.eth retweeted
1. Intro
Vitalik recently wrote about where the EF should go; Aya added a note to explain how we got here, and why. I’ll write about the execution.
We now have enough clarity to stop treating “what is the EF for?” as an open-ended question. Our mandate is clear: The EF exists to ensure Ethereum is, becomes, and remains real permissionless infrastructure for self-sovereignty: censorship (and capture) resistant, free and open source, private, and secure; and capable of supporting sovereignty-preserving coordination at scales where trusted institutions hitherto have been unavoidable.
The following are my thoughts on some of the points that follow from the mandate and how we are translating it to action. But first, a short reminder about
2. What the EF is not for
We are not here to optimize for EF importance, corpo/pol appeal, or ecosystem popularity. We are also not here to please short-term speculators, prop up TBTF neo-SIFIs, market every app on Ethereum, help anyone look good to their crypto or investor friends, or provide on-demand entertainment for dinner parties and private retreats.
3. What the EF is for: Eliminating weaknesses
We are here to defensively strengthen places where Ethereum is, or can still become, extractive, totalizing, or vulnerable to cartel or state capture, or authoritarian tools of surveillance or coercion.
We will base our actions on a full examination of what Ethereum is and can be at the protocol layer (what is actually running as “Ethereum”), the access layer (what users use to interact with the protocol), the user layer (the end-users who need and will need Ethereum), and the institutional layer (the intermediated paths that scale self-sovereign usage).
The EF exists to harden every surface of Ethereum, including those where Ethereum can remain formally permissionless while becoming practically captured. Some obvious surfaces are the transaction pipeline, staking and network security, access layer standards and interfaces, self-sovereignty norms, privacy expectations, institutional adoption patterns, and social layer governance processes. The primary concerns are similar across most of them: does the status quo and its future trajectory minimize trusted dependencies, minimize points of leverage and capture vectors, make user privacy the default, preserve exit, and make trust assumptions legible?
The work starts with the EF itself. We are moving compensation and major financial relationships toward ETH and mandate-compliant Ethereum-native stables, with exceptions where positive law or unavoidable operational constraints require exceptions. Rather than a purity ritual or instruction for people to take unmanaged personal risk, it is robustness, alignment, and product pressure. If the EF’s work is to make Ethereum usable as infrastructure for self-sovereignty, everyone at the EF will increasingly live inside the constraints of the system the EF exists to improve: wallet UX, volatility, accounting, privacy gaps, payment friction, stablecoin trust assumptions, recovery, dependency risk, etc. If we can’t use these tools ourselves, it is unrealistic to expect others to. Ethereum is already mature; those who do not depend on the user-facing stack have no business trying to shape its future, at any layer.
The transaction pipeline is next. Preventing toxic MEV capture is core EF work, not a peripheral market-structure concern. Transaction supply, ordering, inclusion, block construction, propagation, and settlement are part of Ethereum’s neutrality boundary. Some MEV may persist as an adversarial phenomenon the protocol contains, but it must be absolutely minimized and, for that to be possible, we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence by its beneficiaries.
If credibly neutral execution is subverted by privileged orderflow, cartelized builders, trusted relays, opaque routing, or validators outsourcing into a narrow supply chain, Ethereum will look permissionless while users experience it as intermediated at the moment value moves. EF protocol work will therefore prioritize lower barriers to block building and validation, stronger inclusion guarantees, reduced extraction opacity, competitive transaction pipelines, user-facing legibility of trust assumptions, and more aggressively exploring the open orderflow solution space.
None of this is simple. A good solution in one place can aggravate problems elsewhere. FOCIL is good for censorship resistance, but it may introduce more cross-block MEV. While ePBS solves the relayer trust problem, we must make sure that its implementation does not inadvertently obstruct long-term solutions to even larger problems. It would be unacceptable, for example, if ePBS enshrining the builder economy ends up making it harder to reduce reliance on the private orderflow that has emptied out the public mempool. Encrypted mempools may not only reduce pre-execution transparency and pending orderflow visibility, but also shift competitive advantage to new privileged actors, including specialized hardware operators in some designs, while adding protocol complexity.
In order to avoid wasting time playing whack-a-mole, we must commit to solving the extraction problem at a whole system scale. Doing so will require creativity, courage, and the understanding that failure to solve this problem is unacceptable. If we fail, we will have left in place an unnecessary barrier to institutional adoption, but, more importantly, we will also have surrendered a core part of the promise of Ethereum - the replacement of extractive middlemen with permissionless, credibly neutral infrastructure and competitive markets. That must not happen.
MEV is likely to be the next major front in the cypherpunk war. We must set ourselves up to win here.
Privacy is just as fundamental. A public ledger without serious privacy defaults is a surveillance substrate with settlement guarantees. That is not an acceptable end state for the world computer. Unconditional privacy will be readily available across Ethereum, with programmability on top for selective disclosure, proofs, auditability, compliance logic, reputation, governance, identity, and other constraints chosen by users and their communities. The temporal order matters: unconditional privacy must exist first, opt-in constraints come second.
It is also important to avoid forcing users to assemble a fragile stack of special wallets, RPCs, bridges, apps, compliance providers, and operational habits to attain privacy. Deep privacy must be more secure than this. Privacy is a condition for Ethereum’s viability as freedom-respecting coordination infrastructure and as such must be robust.
Staking must be treated as protocol infrastructure risk. Staking is not merely a yield product, and liquid staking is not merely an app-layer market. If stake, liquidity, validator access, DeFi collateral, and governance influence concentrate around a small set of issuers or operators, Ethereum’s security layer becomes vulnerable to capture through capture of the economic layer around it. EF will support research, specifications, and designs that keep staking permissionless, private where possible, plural in operation, and resistant to intermediaries becoming permanent control points.
The access interfaces are where users access either the protocol directly or through intermediated defaults. The primary problem to solve here is not getting Ethereum into more rooms directly, but making its users, both end users and institutions, more self-sovereign and less susceptible to coercion, and avoiding normalization of soft coercion in exchange for reach. EF will not help Ethereum become more acceptable by sanding off the properties that make it uniquely valuable. Ethereum does not need to become another permissioned settlement backend with better branding. It needs to show, in production, that self-sovereign coordination at scale is possible.
Across Ethereum, the EF’s defensive work seeks to ensure that Ethereum is infrastructure people can still use when counterparties fail, platforms censor, governments overreach, intermediaries extract, and coordination problems become infeasible for trusted systems to handle. A core part of that is to make that infrastructure secure and robust against capture at every layer wherever capture opportunities can hide.
4. What the EF is also for: Seizing opportunities
Shoring up the fundamentals is not enough. Ethereum’s potential is still largely unrealized, but that does not mean that the path ahead is going to be straight. Opportunities must be seized when the time is right. At this moment in time, a number are visible, including:
* Ethereum becoming the first quantum-resistant global infrastructure. Ethereum researchers will lead the post-quantum cryptographic migration before the threat becomes urgent, not after it becomes a governance emergency. That means hardening Ethereum’s cryptographic foundations while there is still time to design carefully. The same applies to other long-horizon risks, where waiting for market demand means waiting until the window for principled design has already closed.
* Verifiably self-sovereign stack, from soup to nuts, whether local or remote, with no censorship or extraction openings: browsers, wallets, intents, broadcasts, orderflow, inclusion, block construction, proposal, proving, exit, and recovery. Minimal MEV, and zero toxic MEV entrenchment, either in or around the protocol. No execution layer that is formally permissionless but practically gatekept by privileged supply chains. If there’s a funnel towards an extractive private lane, there’s other options that keep the game live. The goal is not only to prevent extraction or capture, but to make credibly neutral execution competitive enough that serious users prefer it.
* Making ETH normal digital cash: a private, dignity-respecting, debasement-resistant and surveillance-resistant medium of exchange and store of value, as well as the native asset of private computation and private coordination for both humans and their agents. If Ethereum can make private economic life and private institutional life possible without routing users back through the friction and potential abuse of custodians, surveillance vendors, or permissioned ledgers with softer branding, as well as provide a venue for secure and competitive machine economics, the value unlocks will be immense.
* Personal wallets with personal AI agents that users can actually own and run on their own personal computers. Not your keys, not your coins; not your model, not your mind. As agents become interfaces for more economic and social action, the question of who owns the wallet, the model, the memory, the policy, and the signing authority becomes an existential question about sovereignty instead of UX details - we are all users above any other roles, and no one at EF will forget this.
* Institutional and enterprise use cases where Ethereum wins by not disappearing into an invisible backend, gatekept by intermediaries or terrible UX, and by not compromising into a compliant fintech rail with web3 branding. Rather, we will win through proving that credibly neutral infrastructure can handle disintermediated coordination so competitively that trusted intermediaries have to meet Ethereum users on Ethereum’s terms.
* Security-preserving scaling. L2s and related infrastructure will be able to meet institutional-level needs without accepting dependencies on closed operators, opaque sequencing, custodial UX, or upgrade committees that users cannot realistically exit. Scale is not throughput alone. Scale is the guaranteed availability of self-sovereignty under real load.
We are ensuring Ethereum remains the hardest bedrock for settlement, local and worldwide; and beyond that, a civilizational ledger and execution substrate to stand the test of time. When future civilizations speak of the infrastructure they inherited from the Antiquity of the Information Age, their first example should be Ethereum.
Ethereum will outlast all of us. More than enough people watching understand this. Many wondered why it needed saying at all, but it did. If you don't believe us or don't get it, we don't have time to try to convince you, sorry.
5. Addressing departures
There has been a lot of online speculation about departures from EF, both before and after the mandate. Some people resigned, others were terminated. Some departures were about strategy, some about role fit, some about normal institutional change, and some simply about people deciding that their best work for Ethereum should happen somewhere else. We will not litigate individual personnel matters on Twitter. That is the default because it is better for EF, better for the people involved, and better for Ethereum. People who contributed through EF deserve dignity on the way out. They do not deserve to have their employment history turned into factional content.
Where possible, we have let people describe their departures in their own words as a matter of courtesy, and not concession. If public claims materially mislead people about EF’s direction, decision-making, or mandate, we may correct the record at the level of policy, process, and institutional facts. We still will not turn personal files into public spectacle.
Ethereum is permissionless. People may disagree, criticize, compete, fork, and build elsewhere. We intend to keep exits dignified and expect others to do the same. It will suffice to say that we are thankful for what all contributors have built; we will continue to do work Ethereum needs.
6. Addressing EF spinouts
Some work should and will leave the EF in the months to come. We hope and expect this process to result in some excellent work being done in service of scaling self-sovereign adoption, but we also must take care lest it becomes an abdication of responsibility or an excuse for undisciplined spending. Some work is not mandate-compatible and should not be carried forward with EF funds or EF endorsement, either inside or outside the Foundation.
The efforts carried out by the spinouts will vary widely. Some efforts will leave EF because another org would be a better home for them; others will leave because markets should decide on their worth. Some will leave because they are not compatible with the direction set out in the mandate; others because they are useful but not EF work.
Just as a spinout is not automatically good because it reduces EF headcount, former EF affiliation is not a claim on EF funding. The question we ask when deciding on funding is not “did this come from the EF?” But, rather the questions that should be asked about all external funding:
“Is this work mandate-critical? Would the EF do this work internally if it had the organizational and financial capacity? Is there no better natural home? Can the external party execute without increasing capture risk, private extraction, opacity, or dependence? Does supporting it reduce Ethereum’s dependence on the EF over time, without prematurely transferring resources and legitimacy to new organizations and thereby risking operational failure or mission drift?”
EF funding for work being done externally can be appropriate when it is a capacity solution for mandate work - work the EF should responsibly want done; work that protects CROPS; work that advances self-sovereignty and scales it; essential work that no actor can or will reliably do without EF funding; and work that can be scoped, reviewed, and held accountable without creating a permanent dependency.
Such funding is not appropriate when it is a lazy continuity payment, a friendship payment, a reputational hedge, a way to avoid making a hard decision, or a way to support work that is not compatible with the mandate.
EF has finite funds, finite legitimacy, and a specific mandate. We will spend all three as if they matter. When we say “EF is one of many nodes”, we mean that we intend to be one of many nodes working to keep self-sovereignty and its scaling the North Star, and working to keep CROPS the undisplaceable first-class properties of the network. We don’t mean that we will support orgs or projects with different priorities. Diversity that leads to ecosystem resilience, coordination cost right-sizing, and better decision-making is good. Diversity that leads to mission drift is not.
We are not neutral on the direction Ethereum takes. CROPS are not just things we “believe in”, they are characteristics we understand must be thoughtfully prioritized at every fork for Ethereum to realize its potential. We are partisans for and builders of something of such incredible neutrality that it will fundamentally reshape the world we live in; we wish to work with everyone committed to this shared purpose.
hellenstans.eth retweeted
Why Link is a big step forward for consumer crypto
- 250 million consumers have a Link wallet with a stored fiat payment method.
- It supports a global set of payment methods like cards and bank accounts, as well as UPI, PIX, etc.
- It now stores stablecoins (on Tempo!) in a consumer-friendly UX. No complicated addresses required. Just a digital dollar balance that can be spent at 5 million merchants.
- It’s agent-native. The 5 million Stripe customers (as well as anyone who supports MPP) can immediately accept payments from agents using Link with no additional work. Virtually *every* leading AI company is a Stripe customer and works with Link.
Ultimately, this is crypto as plumbing providing faster, cheaper and global without any consumer behavior change necessary.
hellenstans.eth retweeted
Hey 👋
I've decided to start publishing a weekly update of all the happenings from the Crypto Grant Wire on my Substack. Here's a rundown, you'll find a link at the end where you can check out the Substack (and subscribe, ofc)
hellenstans.eth retweeted
I agree wholeheartedly with Kevin's analysis around the shrinking of the PGF & funding mechanism space
The 2021-24 era (RPGF, QF, etc) were an aberration rather than norm that many of us were lucky to have experienced
I'll now call out specific incidents from that time, not to target any project but as a post-mortem of that era.
Broadly, we need 10x improvements in 3 areas around funding collection, division & evaluation before we are ready for a return of that time
1. Top of funnel funding
Many of the 2021-24 ecosystems have not had any RoI from their PGF spend. Optimism got little from their RPGF outlay except marketing or mindshare, while Arbitrum DAO gave significant funds via QF which provided little benefit to their ecosystem
I see 2 areas to improve in how we collect funds from PGF programs;
a. Solve the free-rider problem
Many of the PGF programs felt like charge of the light brigade ('into the valley of death rode the 600') since other ecosystems didn't join but still enjoyed the benefits of what got funded by OP RPGF or Arbitrum QF.
To unblock ecosystem funding, we need to innovate mechanisms where the majority can coerce the minority into joining funding coalitions
For eg, @clesaege idea that if over 51% of validators indicate their interest to channel a portion of staking rewards to ecosystem growth, all 100% of validators are forced to join
Or @RaymondCheng00 idea around new software licenses that create legal obligations to donate to open source from profits or revenue, which could address Optimism's @okx problem where they are not part of the 15% revenue sharing arrangement but still use OP stack and its improvements as its MIT license based
b. Eliminate distinction between institutional and individual giving
Something I've learnt recently is how easy it is for individuals to simply yeet any money into a @dripsnetwork list or PGF mechanism, while institutions have requirements to either mitigate or transfer risk.
So they either KYC/KYB every recipient (expensive and impractical for mechanisms giving funds to many grantees) or structure it as a grant to another entity taking on that risk
@vinayvasanji is thinking deeply around how we might build vehicles that unblock institutional giving while also making it more transparent, something I'm excited to work on in 2026. because make no mistake, institutions hold vastly more money than individuals.
2. Allocation or splitting funds between projects once received
The majority of focus in the PGF space & at @schellingpoint_ this year was around algorithms that split a pot of funds between projects. quadratic funding based on wisdom of the crowds, badgeholder voting from experts, deep funding with AI etc all focus on credit assignment or figuring out who should get how much
What doesn't get enough love is decentralized eligibility. All these mechanisms make projects fill out grant applications & Optimism or Gitcoin then made centralized (& fairly lenient) decisions on who got to participate in the funding round
If we move from the PGF framing to one of connecting cost and revenue centers, deciding what is a cost center and what isn't will become more important than deciding funding between them
As i often like to say, if only good & relevant projects take part in your funding round, it doesn't matter if your allocation isn't perfect
@carl_cervone has done some phenomenal work on dependency graphs listing out repos used by an ecosystem, which is a good starting point to map out cost centers using algorithms instead of humans
I've also found that framing this exercise as a security one (uniswap v3 should have a map of the repos it depends on) receives a more favorable reception than as a PGF tool
3. Accountability
Now we come to the issue Owocki pinpointed in his post - well intentioned mediocrity by grantees in past funding rounds
The meta question here is, how can we cut out non-performers so they don't get to keep participating round after round?
Similar to how companies either listen to customers or go out of business, we need to ensure that public good projects have a way of dying out if unused. It is expensive for the web3 world to waste precious talent on a project going nowhere, simply because funding mechanisms keep them alive
for eg, one feedback i heard was on how the @soliditylang v2 roadmap doesn't take into account user demands on faster compile times, instead prioritizing features they read about in Rust academic papers which they want to implement in solidity
The final boss to defeat before we see the comeback of funding mechanisms in full is ensuring funders putting money into these things get the full bang for the buck, regardless of whether it was given as a grant or via an algorithm.
2 examples stood out to me as hard problems that we still need to somehow solve;
a. Despite @ETHGlobal receiving significant OP RPGF funds, they didn't even list optimism as a sponsor or give bounties because "oh that was retroactive it doesn't count"
so optimism could have got greater benefit by giving away the same amount of money but structuring it as a bounty/sponsorship to eth global instead of giving it to them through their RPGF program
b. @wevm_dev received large RPGF funding but not only haven't listed optimism as a funder on their website but also reportedly sent them a quotation when requested to integrate new chains or features
So if Optimism could have got greater value from funding them if they had simply not given wagmi/viem the money as RPGF but instead as conditional on executing features they wanted
Solving the additionality of funding in mechanisms is hard, but i see github based governance as a good path to explore. Create an issue on a recipients repo listing funds received which gets closed after required deliverables are submitted
Excited to work on these issues going into 2026! I love how Devcon always helps with priority setting for the next year 😊
Leaving Devconnect, I felt the weight of being in a niche that might be stagnating.
Public goods funding in Ethereum has lost mindshare. PGF is seen as a cost center to many ecosystems, Vitalik is focused elsewhere. Builder energy is real, but attention has drifted.
Discussing this with @carl_cervone, we focused on one core issue. Most teams failed to execute well. There is a lot of well-intentioned mediocrity. In a rising market, mediocrity gets hidden. CT has an immune system for obvious scams now, but not for pervasive mediocrity.
Some bright spots:
- Its been great to see the rise of @OctantApp - they are focusing on the demand side with their new vault play - which I think is super smart. I want them (and their vault users) to raise a shit ton of funds and then be discerning about how to spend it.
- I love what @SilviProtocol is doing with bioregional financing. Peer to peer proof of tree planting is very cool, this model could completely bypass the existing middleman-ridden NGO structure for reforestation.
- @deep_funding is doing great work attracting talent from new places (AI). And scaling human judgement to fund OSS dependancies.
- I like how @devanshmehta thinks about connecting revenue centers & cost centers for ecosystems. Just like how its hard to survive in nature w/o energy, its hard to survive in business without revenue. By connecting cost/revenue centers. we are able to finance ecosystem public goods in tandem with their growth.
- IMO The clearest direction for @gitcoin GG25 is to focus on keeping our own spend (relatively) low while proving out our ability to build coalitions that have impact (and get upside) in 1 to 2 frontier metas with real momentum (maybe x402, AI, stablecoins, DePIN, interop, infofi privacy). Tangibly this means running public goods funding rounds there, and pairing it with token investments to build dealflow and treasury longevity. The PGF rounds build dealflow for the investment engine.
- There are others that are doing great things I likely missed. Shill them in the comments and Ill RT the best takes.
Thanks @carl_cervone for helping me sensemake here!
hellenstans.eth retweeted
Announcing AI for Public Goods Fast Grants (AI4PG) - Up to $10K for AI research improving public goods funding.
Fast review (2-3 weeks), simple applications (4 pages + 1 budget page), open to any researchers worldwide. Call for reviewers now open!
recerts.org/ai4pg2025
hellenstans.eth retweeted
A problem statement I've often heard from well wishers of Ethereum is,
,, can you give us one public key where we send money & it auto-redistributes to the relevant repos or projects"
glad to see the work @thelazyliz , @clesaege and I undertook at the Iceland residency formally written up and launched as a product enabling this!
1. TL;DR:
traders bet on the value of a project if it were to be assessed by a judge. we use this market assessment to decide splits between open source repos
2. Problem: Funding mechanisms like QF or time weighting don't reflect projects having orders of magnitude higher impact than others, giving a roughly equal amount to all
3. Design
To counter this, we map a dependency graph of core projects; ask traders to bet on its value if it were to be assessed; and then stream rewards to the projects based on the market estimation
the role of evaluators isn't to allocate money but to keep the market honest. In QF, there's no consequence of donating to a bad project; in deep funding, you lose money if an evaluator assesses the project as being worth lower than your estimate and earn profit if its higher
4. Call to Action
We need your help in 3 ways;
a. give your predictions of weights between 45 repos. Test it out on pond and stake money on it in seer (links in reply)
b. Be an evaluator to provide comparisons between repos
c. Commit money to funding the repos underpinning ethereum through this mechanism! in Gitcoin round 24, we have a commit of $350,000 based on the weights obtained in the market
Full eth research post in QT. Links to the current competitions in replies, first market resolution is October 6th so submit your CSV files before then!
Met @devanshmehta at ethcc and heard him talk about @deep_funding, which really intrigued me. 3 months and an impact evaluation retreat later, we + @clesaege are excited to share what's next for deep funding :) ethresear.ch/t/deep-funding-…
hellenstans.eth retweeted
. @gitcoin GG24 high level summary, aggregated by @carl_cervone
hellenstans.eth retweeted
Grants Summit - 2025 xitter.cf/i/broadcasts/1vOxwdbOX…
hellenstans.eth retweeted
come to learn about l2beat, leave a chai and Save Ethereum dance maxi
hellenstans.eth retweeted
Replying to @hellenstans @owocki
Yeah the 3 main issues to solve with info fi compared to kaggle approach is
1. Reliance on externalprize money to models
2. Drunken monkey issue where submission of million csvs with minor changes and one is bound to be right
3. Fresh fruit problem where weights get outdated
hellenstans.eth retweeted
The Grant Innovation Lab (GIL) at @metagov_project is planning a virtual grant conference we're calling the 2025 Grant Summit in mid-Aug (date TBD).
1 day for grantees and 1 for grant operators.
We want to hear from y'all - what topics are you most excited to hear about and discuss?
👇
hellenstans.eth retweeted
New piece is live: Based Grants 🔵
While many ecosystems wrestle with governance overhead and treasury management, @base took a different path.
Let 's dive in...
hellenstans.eth retweeted
After diving into @arbitrum Incentives Detox in my last piece, I wanted to zoom out and look at a shift happening: the bifurcation of traditional grants from results-based incentives.
Promise 🤝 Proof
hellenstans.eth retweeted
The AI Elections are LIVE and open for one week. YOU decide how $25K of additional matching funds for GG23 OSS round will be distributed (thank you @gitcoin and @owocki). Vote for your favorite configurable AI politician here: vote.deepgov.org
Don't like any of them? No worries, they are configurable! Send out a PR for their model spec or fork them and run for office yourself 🤣
gov.gitcoin.co/t/deepgov-pha…
hellenstans.eth retweeted
Need a sign to start building with Cartesi? The Cartesi Grants Program is open for applications!
No idea? No problem. Explore the available RFPs here and see what you can build.
→ bit.ly/3RaBr3q
hellenstans.eth retweeted
Replying to @gauthamzzz @LefterisJP
3/ Enter Futarchy:
Instead of voting or buying votes, you BET on outcomes.
Want to make a governance decision?
- Set a measurable goal (token price, revenue, etc)
- Let people bet which option achieves it
- Execute what the market predicts will work
hellenstans.eth retweeted
New piece, just published: "The Arbitrum Incentives Detox"
I've spent months tracking Arbitrum's journey through incentive models and what it reveals about DAO governance 🗳️
Special thanks to @t__norm @l2beatgov @sinkas @MegLister @EntropyAdvisors for the review and suggestions 🫡
sovereignsignal.substack.com…
hellenstans.eth retweeted
Most people don’t know this, but my first *real* job after college was working for a USAID funded project in East Africa.
Here’s a short essay on how the experience shaped my early career plus my thoughts on the current situation
cerv.one/essays/usaid




























